In-text citation
Notes-bibliography: cite with a superscript footnote/endnote number, and give the full source in a note. Author–date: cite the author's surname, year, and page in parentheses, similar to APA.
Author–date: Journalling has been shown to improve working memory (Smyth 2021, 47).
Direct quote: Notes-bibliography footnote: 1. John M. Smyth, The Cognitive Journal: Writing for Mental Clarity (Boston: Academic Press, 2021), 47.
Bibliography (notes style) or References (author–date style)
Notes-bibliography: list full sources in a "Bibliography" sorted alphabetically, in addition to numbered footnotes/endnotes in the text. Author–date: list sources in a "References" list identical in structure to APA's.
| Source type | Example citation |
|---|---|
| Book (bibliography entry) | Smyth, John M. The Cognitive Journal: Writing for Mental Clarity. Boston: Academic Press, 2021. |
| Journal article (author–date) | Garcia, Laura, and Sam Park. 2024. "Sleep Deprivation and Academic Performance in First-Year Students." Journal of Educational Psychology 116 (3): 441–58. |
| Book chapter | Williams, Clare. "Metacognition in Higher Education." In Handbook of Learning Science, edited by Ben Clarke and Dana Park, 114–38. London: Sage, 2023. |
| Website | American Psychological Association. "Understanding Your Learning Style." Last modified March 15, 2023. https://www.apa.org/topics/learning. |
Key formatting rules
- Decide on one system for the whole document — notes-bibliography and author–date are not mixed.
- In notes-bibliography, the first footnote for a source is in full; later citations of the same source can be shortened.
- Bibliography entries are formatted differently from the first full footnote (author name order flips: Surname, First Name).
- Use "Ibid." sparingly, if at all — most style guides now prefer a shortened citation instead.
Common mistakes to avoid
- Mixing footnote numbers with author–date parenthetical citations in the same paper.
- Formatting a bibliography entry exactly like a footnote — the author name order and punctuation differ.
- Forgetting to include a full note the first time a source is cited.
Want more detail? Read the full APA, MLA, and Chicago Citation Styles: The Definitive Comparison Guide.